Many students take notes as they read, then go back over them with a highlighter. These familiar habits may help when you are cramming for a test, but research shows they are not very effective for long-term learning.

“We tend to think that what feels the easiest will be retained the easiest, and it’s actually the opposite,” said Pooja Agarwal, a cognitive psychologist and author. She explained that many popular study methods are like this. So-called study hacks shared online, such as chewing gum or listening to music, do not improve learning. Highlighting and rereading notes help students feel focused and satisfied, but studies show they make little lasting difference.

Students learn better when they create small mental challenges, something psychologist Robert Bjork calls “desirable difficulties.” One of the most powerful methods, retrieval practice, often takes only a minute or two. Instead of taking notes while reading, Agarwal suggested stopping for a while after a few pages to write down everything you can remember.

Henry Roediger, a cognitive psychologist who studies memory, said this works whether you write the information down, discuss it with a partner, or simply think it through. But he noted that you must think about the idea carefully, not just quickly. Spacing out sessions helps too: studying for an hour on several separate days beats cramming for three hours right before an exam.

One of the best ways to learn, though, has nothing to do with studying. A good night’s sleep helps the brain strengthen the memories formed during the day, so students should avoid all-nighters, Roediger added.